IndexWhat causes primate social behavior? Skin care Sharing foodOther examples of altruismConclusionWhat causes social behavior in primates? According to the American biologist Edward Wilson, social behavior in primates is caused by evolution (Larsen, pp. 194). However, although aggression and altruism have opposite meanings, both elements are present in the world of primates. What evolutionary aspects have caused two contradictory elements to be present to this day in primates, including humans? The intent of this article is to investigate the presence of altruism and aggression in human and non-human primates and to understand why they are considered important for evolution. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay In the selfish gene theory, Richard Dawkins (1976) explains that human evolution is due to the selfish nature of our genes. He believes that our evolution is due to the drive of our genes to survive and reproduce. However, time has shown that humans care more about themselves and have shown altruistic behavior over time (Slyke, 2010). Altruism is defined as a behavior toward a recipient that benefits the recipient at the expense of the actor performing the behavior (de Waal, 2008). Altruism is common in humans, even toward strangers where no benefit is expected from acting altruistically (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003). Reciprocal altruism is helping someone who has helped you in the past (Slyke, 2010). Indirect reciprocity is the act of helping someone when there is no direct benefit; however, as a result your reputation as an honest helper increases and therefore increases your chances of receiving benefits in the future (Slyke, 2010). Humans can also be motivated to act altruistically simply through empathy or concern for the recipient (Silk & House). , 2011). On the other hand, their altruistic behavior may be due to selfish reasons where the actor expects the expected benefits (Silk & House, 2011). Competitive altruism was also found to be present in humans during a study in which participants increased their generosity to increase their self-presentation for being chosen as a social partner (Barclay & Willer, 2007). Kin selection is also an evolutionary process of altruism as humans often help family members more often than strangers (Slyke, 2010). As you can see, altruism can be manifested by humans in many ways and for many reasons, from increasing one's reputation to empathizing with someone and understanding their need for help. How are these mechanisms of altruism important to human evolution? According to one study on altruism, altruism toward nonkin was actually seen as a sexually selected human trait that people looked for in their potential mates (Phillips, Barnard, Ferguson, & Reader, 2008). . This supports the idea that altruism is a component of sexual selection important for evolution in humans (Philips et al., 2008). Altruism, as a whole, can also contribute to our evolution by ensuring our survival. Many humans perform many altruistic acts every day, such as holding the door open for someone or letting them go ahead of them in line at the supermarket. These small acts may not increase our chances of survival, but larger acts do. For example, a person can donate money to a needy person. Thereperson can use the money to buy the food needed to survive. This act, and others like it, allow someone to survive and possibly reproduce, which would contribute to our evolution as a whole. Altruism also increases social bonds and cooperation, which can also be seen as an important component for survival (Slyke, 2010). Nonhuman primates are also prone to altruism (Warneken, Hare, Melis, Hanus, & Tomasello, 2007). In the course of my research, I have noticed that humans and nonhuman primates perform altruism for many of the same reasons. However, there are also some differences. Among nonhuman primates, altruism can be expressed through caring, sharing food, and other various situations for multiple reasons. Grooming Allogrooming, or social grooming, is perhaps the most common altruistic behavior performed among primates (Schino & Aureli, 2010). One possible motivation for primate grooming is kin selection, in which primates groom those to whom they are related (Schino & Aureli, 2008). For example, rhesus and Japanese macaques spend more time grooming close relatives than more distant relatives (Silk, 2002). Reciprocal altruism is another explanation for grooming, as in the case of red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur fulvus rufus) (Port, Clough, & Kappeler, 2009). Indeed, Schino and Aureli (2010) conducted a study that found that the distribution of grooming among primates was more explained by reciprocity than kin selection. However, this does not mean that the care is equally reciprocated. In red-fronted lemurs, female primates who ranked low in their group groomed others more, related to the amount of grooming they received (Port et al., 2009). Porto et al. (2009) also found that, on average, males reciprocate less from females than they receive from females. What are other reasons for the use of grooming in the primate world? Among chimpanzees, grooming has been used to obtain future care from those being groomed (Koyama, Caws, & Aureli, 2006). Furthermore, although it does not fit the usual definition of grooming, primates often clean the wounds of conspecifics, or members of their own species, in an attempt to heal the wound (de Waal, 2008). Finally, grooming can be exchanged for tolerance on the part of the marginalized, especially at feeding grounds, where food is unlikely to be shared with them (Silk, 2002). How is grooming important to evolution? Just like humans, it is important because it forms stronger social bonds. It also elicits cooperation for future conflicts, which helps ensure the survival of the species (Koyama et al., 2006). Grooming can also be used in exchange for food, which is obviously necessary for survival (Frank & Silk, 2009). Furthermore, cleaning the wounds can guarantee the survival of the individual who will then have the ability to reproduce. The next example of altruism shown in primates is sharing food. Sharing Food Sharing food is perhaps the second most common form of altruism within the primate community (Silk, Brosnan, Henrich, Lambeth, & Shapiro, 2013). Jaeggi & van Schaik (2011) stated that among non-human primates, chimpanzees are the only species that shares food among adults in the wild. However, Silk & House (2011) found that marmosets, capuchins, and tamarins donate food to an even greater extent than chimpanzees. While making field observations at the Ellen Trout Lufkin Zoo, I witnessed two white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) sharing food. I'm not sure of the underlying causethis sharing since I don't know the relationship between the two monkeys. The male would go to the food bowl and take two food pellets and then give one to the female. Food sharing patterns among primates have been found to be due to reciprocity, kin selection, strengthening social bonds, and appeasing beggars (Silk & House, 2011). Meat sharing is common among chimpanzees after a group hunt (de Waal & Suchak, 2010). Those who actually participated in the hunt had easier access to food than those who did not participate (de Waal & Suchak, 2010). Sharing food is an absolutely necessary necessity for evolution. Food. Food is necessary to survive and survival is necessary to reproduce. Other examples of altruism Alarm calling, which involves a primate making a loud call to warn conspecifics that there is a threat approaching or nearby, is considered an act of altruism as it puts the actor at risk while benefiting the others (Silk, 2002). Tree bridging, in which a primate uses its body as a bridge between two trees to assist young ones, is a common altruistic act among orangutans (van Schaik, 2004). During my field observations, I observed De Brazza's mother monkey traveling around her cage with her young clinging to her stomach. Acts like these show the strong kinship between primates. A study examining altruism in chimpanzees and human infants found that chimpanzees and infants helped unfamiliar humans without expecting a reward ( Warneken et al., 2007 ). Warneken et al. (2007) also found that chimpanzees also helped other chimpanzees that were unrelated and unknown to them. The alarm call is a motivation for evolution as it ensures the survival of many, although it may sacrifice the life of the caller (Silk, 2002 ). Alarm calls ensure that the group is informed of a threat and can prepare to deal with it (Silk, 2002). Connecting trees can be considered beneficial for the survival of young chimpanzees as it ensures that they will arrive safely at the next tree. It certainly doesn't hurt evolution, it might be a better way to look at it. Chimpanzees helping other chimpanzees unrelated to them may be seen as aiding the survival of chimpanzees as a whole rather than simply aiding their own bloodline. The fact that both humans and nonhuman primates are willing to help their conspecifics other than their relatives shows how similar we are to other primates. Another similarity we share is aggression. Aggression has been defined by many psychologists as any behavior that one person displays towards another with the intention of harming someone who does not want to be harmed (Baumeister & Bushman, 2014). Aggression in humans has been divided into reactive aggression, which is an emotional, unplanned response to a provocation, and proactive aggression, which is planned, controlled, goal-oriented behavior (Nouvion, Cherek, Lane, Tcheremissine, & Lieving, 2007). Males have been found to be more aggressive towards individuals of the same sex, as well as those of the opposite sex (Wolfer & Hewstone, 2015). However, women are more likely than men to display relational aggression, such as spreading rumors about someone or ostracising them from their group (Baumeister & Bushman, 2014). In humans, most aggression involves familiar people (de Waal, 2000). One of the main differences between aggression in humans and non-human primates isthe ability of humans to carry out aggression with the use of modern weapons (Cashdan & Downes, 2012). Aggression in humans ranges from spousal abuse to bar fights to pushing or even killing someone, with or without a weapon. The reasons for aggression in humans are also complex and expansive. Some of the reasons are infidelity, lying, provocation, jealousy, impressing a potential mate, or having an incentive, such as money. How do primates differ in terms of aggression? One of the theories designed to explain aggression in primates is the male mate defense hypothesis, in which male aggression increases when females in heat are present (Kitchen & Beehner, 2007). This theory has been supported by evidence found in chimpanzees (Pan troglodyte), Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), bonnet macaques (M. radiate), and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitus) (as cited in Kitchen & Beehner, 2007) . This has also been true for white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia), whose primary reason for intergroup aggression appears to be maintaining exclusive access to females (Thompson, Norconk, & Whitten, 2012). In female chacma baboons, oestrus females receive the most aggression, demonstrating that females also fight for potential mates (Huchard & Cowlishaw, 2011). Furthermore, pregnant Chacma baboons have been found to be the most aggressive, likely due to competition for food resources involved in successful gestation and lactation (Huchard & Cowlishaw, 2011). In polygamous species, such as olive baboons (Papio anubis), males are chosen as mates based on their competitive ability, thus having higher levels of male-to-male aggression (Sapolsky, 2006). Mountain gorillas also choose their mates based on their fighting ability (Robbins, Gray, Uwingeli, Mburanumwe, Kagoda, & Robbins, 2014). Aggression can be displayed in many different forms, including vocalizations, chasing, wounding, and sometimes killing of conspecifics ( Harris, 2007 ). Aggression in green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) manifests itself through threats, chasing, hitting, lunging, pushing and biting (Chalyan & Meishvili, 2007). In one species of macaques (Macaca mulatta), the intensity of aggression is high with numerous bites (Thierry, 1985). In green monkeys, males have shown higher levels of aggression than females due to the competitive nature of achieving high status and access to females (Chalyan & Meishvili, 2007). In marmosets (Callithrix iacchus), aggression increases in families containing more than five individuals (de Filippis, Chiarotti, & Vitale, 2009). Hanya (2009) studied the appearance of aggression during the feeding period in wild Japanese macaques. He found that the fewer the number of feeding sites, the greater the level of aggression displayed. However, aggression was only exhibited when feeding high-quality foods, such as fruits and seeds, as opposed to low-quality foods, such as leaves and flowers (Hanya, 2009). Bwindi mountain gorillas also fight for high-quality foods and those that take longer to eat (Wright & Robbins, 2014). Kitchen found that when small pups were present, black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) howled faster and for a longer period of time. infanticidal intruders (as cited in Wich & Sterck, 2007). While observing lemurs at the Lufkin Trout Zoo, many of them suddenly began making loud noises. I'm not sure what caused the noises, but I thought they were a warning. From the.